Infrared Thermography System Requirements

Infrared Thermography System Requirements As the use of advanced materials continues to increase in the aerospace community, the need for a quantitative, rapid, in situ inspection technology has become a critical concern throughout the industry. In many applications it is necessary to monitor changes in these materials over an extended period of time to determine the effects of various loading conditions. Additionally, the detection and characterization of defects such as delaminations, cracking, corrosion, etc, is of great concern. 1.1 Thermographic inspection of materials Thermography is particularly adapted for non-destructive testing and can be used on different materials: carbon-epoxy, lightweight metallic alloys, thin metal skin on honeycomb structure (like aircraft doors), epoxy resin with glass fibre reinforcement GFRP, and panel skins with CFRP (Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic) like helicopter blades. The control contributes to highlight the most prominent types of discontinuities seen in aerospace materials including: porosity, which reduces the compressive load carrying capability, water ingress or moisture which can degrade the mechanical properties of some resins or lead to freeze inside the part causing more and more damage, disbond or delamination or cracking resulting from low strength or failure, impact damage during the taxi or caused by bird strike or by a dropped tool during maintenance, and inclusions which can reduce strength by kinking the fibres around the inserted material. Thermographic methods are those in which the presence of flaws is determined by monitoring the flow of heat over the surface of a structure after some external introduction of a temperature gradient. The presence of flaws disrupts the normal pattern of heat flow that would be expected in a sound structure. The method is more sensitive to flaws near to the surface. Modern thermographic systems commonly use infrared (IR) cameras to detect radiated heat and are controlled by TV video electronics which sample the field of view at a typical rate of 50Hz, allowing temperature variations on a 20ms time-scale to be resolved. The camera is sensitive to temperature changes of about 0.005 °C and covers a chosen range of temperature, 4 °C and 8 °C being commonly suitable, although operation is possible between -50 °C and +100 °C. Liquid crystal coatings and pyroelectric detectors have also been used [3.1] to detect IR radiation. Infrared thermography has proved to be an effective tool in the inspection of materials. By providing either a single-sided or a two-sided inspection, the presence and growth of defects in aerospace structures can be evaluated and used to estimate the remaining life of these materials. Thermography can be performed using a variety of heat sources including flash heating (short pulse), step heating (long pulse) and spatially shaped heat sources, thus providing an inspection tool that is applicable to a wide range of material properties, thicknesses and defect types. The principle of infrared thermography (IRT) for non-destructive inspection (NDI) consists in highlighting the relevant differences or gradient disturbances of temperature due to imperfections and deteriorations of the inspected structures. They become visible on the surfaces of these objects. The domain of infrared thermography is quite recent and covers vast fields of applications. In the industrial context, infrared thermography is used either by the passive approach (by simple observation of the isotherms on the surface of interest) or by the active approach (by stimulating the thermal response of the specimen). Thermography has many advantages over more traditional inspection methods. For example, ultrasonic (UT) inspection methods typically require the use of a coupling medium (either water or some other fluid), which can present difficulties for some materials and can make in situ inspection significantly more complicated. Further, UT inspections consist of scanning a small diameter transducer over the surface of the structure; this requires expensive, automated scanning equipment and can be quite time consuming. Thermography, on the other hand, can rapidly image large areas of the structure with little or no surface preparation. As it is mentioned in [3.2], in a typical inspection it is possible to image a 1m2 area in approximately 20 seconds. 1.2 Thermography sensors specifications The IR or infrared portion occupies roughly the region between 10 to the minus 4 to 10 to the minus 3 centimetres, or, from about 1 micron to about 100 microns. But most commercial equipment comes designed to operate in portions of the region, for a number of reasons (lower atmospheric absorption of IR radiation -or IR atmospheric windows, detector availability at reasonable cost). Commercial IR thermography equipment comes in in the following wavelength bands and their filtered sub-bands. Common jargon follows approximately the terminology listed below [3.3]: the near IR region and band is from about 0.7 to 1.7 microns, the short wave or SW band is from about 1.8 to 2.4 microns, the medium wave or MW band is from about 2.4 to 5 microns, and the long wave or LW band is from about 8 to 14 microns. Depending on the selected wavelength, there are a number of performance requirements that must be properly defined to ensure high-quality inspection results. An overview of them is given in the following whereas a more detailed definition will follow in the next subsections of the deliverable. An infrared detector response greater than 5 microns and less than 15 microns with the spectral bandwidth encompassing the 8-10 micron region. Accurate data repeatability in temperature value and location. A direct linear correspondence between the distance travelled, anatomic location and the displayed temperature values. Controlled infrared beam collimation to prevent sensor cross-talk. A sufficient number of infrared samples must be taken in order to maintain an adequately detailed graph resolution. The number of samples taken should be equivalent to the minimum standards of acceptable camera systems. Repeatability and precision of 0.1 °C detection of temperature difference. Accuracy of +/- 2% or less. Ability to perform accurate quantitative differential temperature analysis. High-resolution image display for interpretation. Ability to archive images for future reference and image comparison. Software manipulation of the images should be maintained within strict parameters to insure that the diagnostic qualities of the images are not compromised. Having decided that a thermographic (infrared) inspection will provide the kind of information which will satisfy an inspection need, the next decision is to select a thermographic sensor. The technical specifications are lengthy and full of abbreviations and jargon. A full comprehension of the meanings and implications of the specifications is essential to making a correct equipment selection. The following information regarding the critical parameters in thermography inspection tasks has been taken from [3.4]. Operating Band, emissivity Correction, instantaneous Field of View (Spatial Resolution), measurement of Field of View, spot Size Ratio, noise Equivalent Temperature Difference, minimum Detectable Temperature, thermal Resolution, accuracy, zoom (optical and digital), lenses and Filters, frame Rate, field display, and non-uniformity Correction. The consortium has decided to avoid thermographic sensors with cooled detector types whose their cost can exceed 100,000 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ per sensor. In case the performance of the uncooled thermo- cameras is not satisfying, the consortium will decide for the possible use of cooled thermography sensors. The technical specifications of the thermography sensors for the three wavelengths considered are analytically given in the following Table 3.1. Table 3.1: Technical specifications of the three operating bands in IR systems NIR MidWaveIR LongWaveIR Detector  type Uncooled microbolometer Image  format à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 80 x 80 pixel Pixel  pitch Spectral  range 0.9  µm à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 1.7  µm 3.5  µm à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 5  µm 8  µm à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. 13  µm Range  for  measuring/ visualization -20  °C à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ +80 °C Temperature  resolution NETD Measurement  accuracy  ± 2 K (0  °C à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 100  °C) Dynamicrange 16 bit Imagerate > 30 frames per second Field  of  view > 15 ° x 15 ° Interfaces USB or Giga-Ethernet or CameraLink or IEEE-1394 (FireWire) or S-/-C-Video or RS-232 OR VGA or WLAN Power  supply 12VDC à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. 24VDC Operating  temperature -15  °C à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. +45  °C Storing  temperature -25  °C à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ +50  °C Humidity Relative humidity 10% à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 95%, non-condensing Shock Operational : 25 G, IEC 68-2-29 Vibration Operational : 2 G, IEC 68-2-6 Weight Options Radiometric calibration -40  °C à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. + 300  °C High temperature calibration up to 1,200  °C Image processing functionalities Image capturing software 1.3 Active thermographic techniques and excitation sources Active infrared thermography [3.5] is a non-destructive testing and evaluation (NDTE) technique requiring an external source of energy to induce a temperature difference between defective and non-defective areas in the specimen under examination. A wide variety of energy sources are available, the most common types can be divided into optical, mechanical or inductive, although many other sources can be employed. Figure 3.1 shows typical examples of heat sources of these three excitation types. Figure 3.1 Heat sources/excitations examples: (a) optical: flashes (b) mechanical: ultrasonic transducer (c) inductive: electromagnetic coil 1.3.1 Proposed experimental setups for the thermographic techniques Regardless of the excitation mode being used, three thermographic techniques (pulsed, step and lock-in) will be employed. The experimental setup, along with some theoretical aspects, is given in the following. Pulsedthermography:Pulsed thermography (PT) is one of the most popular thermal stimulation methods in active thermography. One reason for this is the quickness of the inspection relying on a short thermal stimulation pulse, with duration going from a few milliseconds for high conductivity material inspection (such as metal) to a few seconds for low conductivity specimens (such as plastics). Figure 3.2: The proposed experimental set-up using pulsed thermography in reflection with optical excitation. Brief heating will be employed here where both the heating phase (while the pulse is applied) and the cooling phase will be observed. There is no interest in observing the thermal changes during the excitation since these images are often saturated. More importantly, this early data does not contain any information about the internal defects yet. In pulsed thermography, the stimulus will be applied with a xenon flash lamp for a flash pulse and alternatively with a halogen lamp in the transient case. Solving the Heat Conduction Equation tells us that the thermal propagation time to the depth of 2 mm to a subsurface defect is about 40 ms in aluminium and for 2 mm of graphite epoxy is about 30s. This means halogen lamps will be preferred here since flash is better for materials of high thermal diffusivity, e.g., metals. Materials with a low thermal diffusivity, e.g., composites, have a long thermal propagation time, which limits flash thermography to the detection of shallow defects. Stepheatingthermography:Step heating will be also investigated using a larger pulse (from several seconds to a few minutes). The temperature decay is of interest; in this case, the increase of surface temperature will be monitored during the application of a step heating pulse. Variations of surface temperature with time are related to specimen features as in PT. This technique is sometimes referred to as time-resolved infrared radiometry (TRIR). Lock-inthermography: Lock-in thermography (LT) will be also employed, (known as modulated thermography), where the specimen is stimulated with a periodic energy source, Figure 3.3. Sinusoidal waves of different frequencies will be used, although it is possible to use other periodic waveforms as well. Internal defects, acting as barriers for heat propagation, are expected to produce changes in amplitude and phase delay of the response signal at the surface that will permit the detection of defects in higher depths (>3mm). Figure 3.3: The proposed experimental set-up for lock-in thermography in reflection with optical excitation 1.3.2 Types of excitation sources Halogenlamps:mainly used in synchronously stimulated thermography as a radiation source for generating heat radiation with smooth time characteristics. Variations of active thermography with these lamps are popular under the names or Lock-In or phase sensitive (so named by analogy with the principle of operation of the Lock-In amplifier) and frequency- modulated (can be seen as a superposition of the Lock-In thermography). The use of halogen lamps as an energy source is necessary due to their relatively high efficiency, simplicity in use and possibility of control by amplitude modulation of conventional power units. Pulsedlamps:this type of source is mainly applicable to the methods for determining the time thermal transmission properties of materials by means of a generator as a source of excitation. There are used the methods of the optical pulse thermography where the studied structure is heated by short (single) thermal energy waves from xenon flash that create energy density to 100 kJ/m2 for a period of a few ms to a few s. The method is known as active thermography inspection by heat wave and is mainly used to determine the transient thermal response of the object. Non-opticalexcitationsources:ultrasound It is used in the thermo-vibration systems. For this purpose, a source or sources of ultrasonic waves are used which, in their distribution in locations of inhomogeneity or defect create acoustic friction. Thus, heat is generated which affects the surface of the material and is visible to the thermal camera. A typical application of ultrasound sources and vibration-thermography is for inspection of materials with very low thermal conductivity. The application of synchronous vibration-thermography allows increasing the resolution of this method and study of thin thermal layers in places with difficult access. As mentioned before, non-optical excitation sources are out of the scope and will not considered in the proposed experimentation. The required specifications for the excitation sources considered in the proposed experimentation have been identified and are given in the Table 3.2Table 3.4. Table 3.2: Flash lamps specifications Standard  flash  head Ringflash Energy max. 6000 J max. 3000 J Flash  frequency ~  ¼ s Power  connection 110-230 V / 50-60 Hz Accessories Lamps, reflectors, filters Table 3.3: Halogen lamps specifications Single  lamps Power consumption 500-1000 W / lamp @ 230V Lightoutput 37.000 350.000 cd axial Modulation frequency Sensible up to max. 1Hz Accessories Reflectors, filters, robot mounting Halogenlamparray Power consumption 4 x 650 W or 8 x 650 W Description Compact housing with air cooling and heat protective glass Table 3.4: Hot/cold gun specifications Heating  hose  supply 230 V / 50 Hz, compressed air approx. 2 bar Achievable  air  temperature Approx. 250  °C 1.4 Conclusions The specifications for the three IR sensors and the excitation sources have been identified. Especially, all the critical parameters in thermography inspection tasks were presented and the technical specifications of the thermography sensors for the three wavelengths were specified so as to meet the requirement of the problem. All the well-known excitation sources were also analytically presented and the technical specifications of the selected sources were determined.

Infosys Case Analysis Essay

? Case analysis – infosys document structure We have approached the case by first analyzing the identified issues, and then associate root causes to those issues. Further to it we have used two frameworks, â€Å"Web of Change† and â€Å"Hewitt Best Employer Characteristics†, to theoretically assess the weaknesses in Infosys Human Resource and Change Management policies. These frameworks can be used by organizations to better plan their change management and human resource management initiatives. We have used â€Å"Hewitt’s Best Employer Survey†, to identify the key initiatives which Infosys should undertake to enable it to reach its target of â€Å"Best Employer† by 2011. Further to it we believe that â€Å"Best Employer† and â€Å"Best Performer† are complementary goals, and it’s difficult to achieve one without the other, and hence we have identified the key initiatives which can help Infosys to achieve â€Å"Best Performer† target without compromising on its â€Å"Best Employer† objective. about infosys Infosys is the second largest Indian IT software services company. Infosys has reached pinnacles of success in short span of 20 years, through innovative business strategies and human resource practices. Currently it is facing challenges around balancing between business growth and employee satisfaction. About its business Model Infosys delivers IT services to its clients globally in a model called GDM (Global Delivery Model). The main characteristic of this model is that it decouples client location and project execution. Project is executed in locations which provide best combination of cost and talent. Project teams are spread across client site and offshore development centers in countries like India, China, and Mexico etc which provide rich availability of talent at competitive cost. Usually teams at client site document requirements and manage client relationship and offshore team manages delivery. This is a human resource intensive industry and the challenge is exacerbated by the fact that most of the resources are highly skilled professionals (engineers, MBAs, computer scientists etc). Being an industry where human resource is your only asset and your only competitive advantage, managing, ssues and Root Cause analysis In this section we’ll analyze the issues identified in the case and will attempt to identify root causes which led to employee dissatisfaction. After our analysis we believe that issues mentioned in the case is symptomatic of gaps in general principles of leadership, change management and HRM. Policies are not written in blood and stone, and they change ov er the lifetime of organizations. What should not change are basic organizations principles around human resource management. Our assessment is that policy changes in Infosys were reflective of external environment and business imperatives. However, diverging from the basic principles of Change management, leadership, communication and employee development in implementing new policies is what led to its fall in Best Employer ratings. â€Å"Stock Options started lacking luster to the new employees and created equity imbalance among employees† Stakeholders involved New Employees Discontentment Impact Inequity of income/wealth effect in the company which created tension between employees. New employees who had seen Infosys from outside as an organization committed to fairness, equity, and employee wealth creation got disenchanted. Root Cause Failure to Manage Expectations This issue primarily arose because of incorrect expectation setting of new employees. Infosys kept on using stock options and the millionaires’ stories as branding activity, even when stock options were no more an incentive to new recruits. Company should have made it very clear about its new compensation philosophy when it discontinued ESOPS. 1. Managing scale and attrition risk Stakeholders involved Employees Managers Discontentment Impact Infosys was growing at a speed where it was doubling its organizational strength every 1-2 years. However organization was plagued by high attrition rate. Employees felt lack of motivation, due to repetitive process tasks, which the business model demanded. Due to high growth, a lot of employees moved up the managerial ladder, but lacked proper training and orientation and hence couldn’t connect to employees Root Cause Lack of Employee fulfillment ( from the job ) Detached Lleaderships To stress on the need for the above two, we’ll give two examples from Indian public sector. Indian Railways Indian railways has recently transformed itself into a highly profitable organization, and according to the officer on special with Railways, single most critical factor which contributed to this success is involvement and commitment of employees of railways despite having a poor compensation structure. Employees of Indian railways take great pride in their work, since they believe they are contributing to the running of the country’s biggest infrastructure and are responsible for transporting of 2 crore customers every days. This association with organizational goal and pride in your organization is what makes an organization for perpetuity. Due to changing business needs, Iinfosys couldn’t connect to its employees in motivating them. Indian Army A unit commander in the army is able to inspire its soldiers to give up their life, compensation etc notwithstanding. The only reasons soldiers are so committed, is their immediate leader. It depends on the unit commander’s ability to connect to his soldiers, motivate them and show a genuine concern for their wellbeing, is what motivates the soldiers to do the unthinkable for their leader. According to research in human resources field, people leave managers and not companies. The leadership skills of managers are the greatest source of employee fulfillment at work. Lack of engagement and commitment of managers towards their subordinates, was probably the single biggest reason for high attrition rate at Infosys. 2. Strong formalization and process orientation, which came as part of growth, took away bandwidth to innovate from employees. Stakeholders involved Employees Discontentment Impact Employees who were used to getting the thrill and satisfaction from using their skill on technical challenges were feeling cocooned because of new process driven and re-use methodology. Similar impact was observed in people policy issues. All personal policies were getting more and more formalized. Root Cause Lack of employee Motivation Resistance to change One of the basic principles of organization design is that you don’t use strong formalization from highly skilled agents (employees). Formalization is for low skilled repeatable tasks. Infosys should have come up with business models aimed at high end, value added services much earlier. This would have kept its inherent talent not only motivated but better utilized for higher margins. In 1990s moving away from body shopping to GDM provide this opportunity, but in early to middle 2000s, Iinfosys couldn’t reinvent itself. Formalization in organizational policies when it grows out from entrepreneurial stage is inevitable. It’s actually needed to ensure consistent implementation of policies and create a sense of equity and fairness among employee. Dissatisfaction on this front could be attributed to resistance to change, and hence effective change management principles should be employed for disruptive changes. 3. Introduction of variable pay Stakeholders involved Employees Senior Management HR Department Discontentment Impact Variable pay was received with a lot of skepticism by the employees, fearing that it was introduced to reduce their compensation Root Cause/s Change Management Failure Lack of Leadership engagement Communication Failure This was probably one of the most disruptive changes introduced by Infosys. The amount of skepticism and distrust displayed by employees was a first in Infosys. Immediate reaction of employees was that this policy has been introduced to cut employee costs to satisfy shareholders demand for higher and higher profitability. The fact that a vast majority of senior management were shareholders in the company added to employee distrust. There was no clarity among employees how this policy will pan out. A lot of employees were not comfortable in linking their performance to factors outside their control (market conditions, decision taken by management etc). Also since the amount of variable component was high (more than 50% for project managers and above), employees could not understand how much their monthly take home were. This is a classic case of failure in change management and involvement of leadership at every level. Infosys data on variable payout shows that most of the time company has delivered 100% payout and even higher percentage to high performers. So employee skepticism bore from lack of clarity and communication on this policy. Lack of clarity, communication and involvement of employees was to such an extent that even middle management was taken by surprise by this policy. Many managers, who couldn’t appreciate the policy implementation, were reluctant in communicating the changes to the employees. For an employee first point of contact for clarification is his/her immediate line manager, hence it’s important to fully equip leadership at every level with information. To understand the role what leadership plays in motivating, retaining employees, we should look at armed forces. Unit commanders are able to motivate their employees to give their life, despite the fact that compensation package of soldiers is one of the lowest. This commitment in subordinates comes because of total commitment of their leader in engaging with them and motivating with them. Immediate line managers are the biggest reason employees leave an organization and are also the main reason employees go beyond their capabilities to outperform. 4. Retaining Organizational Culture with fast track growth Stakeholders involved HR Department Employees Discontentment Impact Due to business growth imperatives, and its business model, Infosys was doubling its employee strength every 1-2 years. To accommodate this type of growth, it had to lower its hiring standards and quality and culture was a victim of this. Root Cause/s Lack of Employee on boarding ( orientation) planning This issue had an impact on multiple facets. It led to a feeling disenchantment in existing employees, as they felt their brand equity in the market was getting diluted. New employees, who were not able to appreciate infosys inherent culture, didn’t felt comfortable and had a feeling that the organization is biased toward old employees. Root cause of this issue was that although organization had changed its selection criteria, it didn’t change its employee orientation strategy, or training methodology. Infosys should have changed its orientation program to be more customized offering for similar group of employees and using existing employees as mentor to help develop organizational culture and values in new employees. Similarly if you are hiring for quantity and not quality, it should have modified its training plan to be more exhaustive. 5. Broad Banding and promotions Stakeholders involved Employees Discontentment Impact Lack of faith in the organization Chaos and confusion in employees minds Root Cause/s Change Management Communication Leadership This policy again created a lot of employee discomfort since they didn’t knew the details of change. It’s again a classic change management failure. Although the policy was designed to bring more clarity in role structure and bring equity amongst similar roles, across the organization, poor communications created fear and scientism in minds of people. We can observe from the reinvention of Indian Railways, one of the reasons organization could progress on the growth trajectory, was employee commitment to the cause of Indian Railways, despite of low compensation. Employees felt proud to be part of the world’s biggest railways and were motivated to excel. Some of the senior managers lacked clarity about policies, hence they were apprehensive of clarifying the policy. This shows a major organizational failure in terms of change management and engagement of leadership with people. Similarly as discussed above, since employee appraisal parameters were not clearly defined, an employee could not appreciate how his/her appraisal going to impact promotions? Web Of Change – Change Management Framework To do substantiate our above understanding of issues at Iinfosys, we used â€Å"Web of Change†, a change management framework to understand the change management issues at Infosys. â€Å"Web of change: is the framework proposed by Stephen Thomas. This model defines 8 change elements as shown below and the web of change helps us to see how the values of each element changed during the Organization Change process in Infosys. The baseline score is the value of the Change elements in Infosys during the glory years of 1990’s and the re-assessment scores the value of the same change elements in the 2000’s when Infosys was going through the â€Å"Growth pangs†.

Mass Medi The Spread Of Digital Media Communication

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